Political Custom Essay

Political custom essays are usually offered to clients that place an order for political essays. A customized political essay is written as per the instructions delivered by the client that places the order for the political essay. This is a business that mostly conducted by online freelance writers. However, of interest in this case is not to present the business of custom political essay writing, but rather to elucidate the main features of a political essay and what really makes up a good political essay during the process of writing.

 Political essays are a common assessment feature in the field of study known as political science. In such settings they may be used as evaluation tools, however; there purpose is not so exclusive to evaluation.

They may also be used to express political opinion, ideologies and concepts by presenting various political arguments. These political essays are mostly argumentative in nature and they are often characterized with conflicting idea, concepts and opinions of a political nature. The first feature of a political essay that any essay writer should keep in mind is the avoidance of bias. Regardless of the political essay writer’s affiliation bias and expression of personal toned opinions should be avoided. The use of personalities and personalizing a political argument within a political essay should also be avoided. Neutrality should be the key feature of any political essay. The essay should be written in such a manner that no matter who reads it and from whichever political divide s/he may be, s/he may be bound to agree with your factual presentation.

Political essays should also feature a minimal passive voice and at times the first person style may also be applicable in expressing personal arguments formulated in the mid of the writer, but based on facts that can be used to substantiate the facts or allegations stated.

The use of supporting information in form of figures, tables, quotes and many more is a basic thing in any well drafted political essay. Politics with no substance is what is always seen in the political arena, where propaganda may be formulated from hear-say. However, in the field of writing academic political essays there is a high demand for substantial evidence that ca be used in the presentation of the arguments made within any political essay. The common feature among political essays is that they feature current issues, though references to the past political issues may be relevant if the facts and situations in the past are tied to the present. This is an important feature to consider when writing a political essay where the assigning tutor offers you the discretion of deciding which topic to write about. In such instances it would be less helpful to go to past political issues and subjects that may have no present day relevance socially, economically, or politically. Present issues draw the readership closer and help them to view the situation from your perspective that should be presented in a neutral manner. Presenting older issues that may have been analyzed in the past may not draw interest from the readership or the evaluator and as such the political essay based on older political issues may not earn the writer a better score. Other basic features may include maintaining compliance to basic essay formats and enriching the essay with a lot of research information presented clearly and concisely.

 

The Mill and the Cross and Bruegel's Road to Calvary

The extremely unique movie, The Mill and the Cross, by the filmmaker Lech Majewski  features Rutger Hauer as the Flemish Renaissance painter Pieter Bruegel the Elder.  If you are interested in the Northern Renaissance I would recommend seeing this movie.

This movie is visually stunning and takes the viewer inside the painting The Road to Calvary which was painted by Bruegel in 1564.  The painting, seen below, shows Christ carrying the cross on the way to his crucifixion in the center of the painting.  Instead of a quiet, solemn scene with just a few key biblical figures and a focus on Jesus, it has an almost festive atmosphere with about a hundred people.  Jesus carrying the Cross is nearly hidden in the center of the chaos and the Crucifixion appears to be set during the 16th century.  Let's first look at the painting and then I will discuss more about this movie.

The history of the region is important to keep in mind as you view both the painting and the movie.

The Road to Calvary, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, 1564

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

In the 15th century Flanders consisted of Belgium, the Netherlands, part of France and was ruled from Burgundy.  In the late 15th century Flanders was absorbed into the Hapsburg Empire, then King Charles V of Spain inherited it in the early 16th century.  After the Reformation of the Church the Flemish Netherlands became Protestant while Spain was staunchly Catholic.  This led to the 80 years war between Spain and the Netherlands with Flanders being ruled over by Spain.  Eventually the Netherlands won its independence in 1648.

In 1564 when Bruegel painted this work the Protestant Reformation had happened recently and Spanish soldiers were now occupying Flanders.  They are shown in red and on horseback in the painting.  It was not uncommon to set Biblical themes within the time of the painter, this had been done from Roger Campin to Raphael to Caravaggio.  This was in part due to a lack of knowledge of the architecture and dress of life in the time of Jesus and done unintentionally.  There were also many times when it was done intentionally, so that the churchgoers who were praying in front of the painting could better relate Christ to their own lives.

In the case of The Road to Calvary this can be seen as the latter, almost a warning to those who are fighting with each other in the name of religion.  Mixed in with scenes of the Passion of Christ are scenes of everyday life, life continues from dancing to fighting to selling wares to mourning the life of Jesus.  Above everything sits an imaginary steep and rocky hill topped by a windmill.  A windmill had four arms like the cross and was often a symbol for the cross, the windmill also seems a symbol for the ever present eye of God watching down on everyone.  This seems more like a festival such as in Bruegel’s many other works such as his Peasant Wedding, the artist was well known for his scenes of peasant life.

The Peasant Wedding, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, 1568

Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna

An important thing to keep in mind as well is the role of art in the church at this time, it was not meant to be decorative but to teach parishioners who may be illiterate.  Even for those who could read, paintings were a source for meditation and reflection. 

I saw the movie in that same sense.  Rather than an entertaining story it provided a similar role for the 21st century viewer that religious painting would have provided a 16th century viewer.  Majewski's film contained very little dialogue, no real plot and characters who were not fleshed out.  But the film is so visually stunning, so absorbing and engages the viewer in such a way as to transport you back to that time. It is obvious that a lot of work went into making this and creating every little detail that was shown.

While there isn't much dialogue, the movie is rich in sound: children playing, bells tolling, crows, crowds and the ever turning and grinding mill which more than ever is the symbol for God in this movie.  It is a composite between real and imaginary scenery, full of symbols.  I left thinking I would need to watch it again to fully understand it.  Charlotte Rampling played the mourning Madonna and had the most eloquent dialogue in the film.

Bruegel's wife seemed to symbolize a young Madonna, one of my friends who I saw it with noticed that a town magistrate seemed to symbolize Ponchos Pilate.

There are violent and brutal scenes, a man is killed and Christ is shown being crucified.  However that ties into the theme of the movie acting as a catalyst for reflection the way the painting would have.

Part of the description reads: "Majewski invites the viewer to live inside the aesthetic universe of the painting as we watch it being created." 

That statement for me sums the movie up best and has had me thinking about the painting and reflecting on life since I left.

The Last Supper as painted by Ghirlandaio, Leonardo and Tintoretto

The theme of Christ's Last Supper was a very popular image in Italian Renaissance painting.  Perhaps the most well known version is Leonardo da Vinci's fresco in Sta. Maria delle Grazie in Milan, but this scene has been well represented in art history.  The Last Supper (known in Italian as l'ultima cena or il cenacolo) was the last meal Christ shared with his twelve apostles before his Crucifixion.  


It was at this meal that Christ said "This is my body which is given for you" when he broke the bread to eat and "this is my blood" when he drank the wine.  These acts formed the basis for the Eucharist.  This is an important part of Christianity which is why it was depicted again and again in art.  Let's compare and contrast three different versions of The Last Supper as painted by Ghirlandaio, Leonardo and Tintoretto.

 The Last Supper, Domenico Ghirlandaio, San Marco, Florence, 1480's

You may remember from an earlier post that Michelangelo trained in the fresco workshop of Domenico Ghirlandaio.  The above Last Supper was painted as a fresco in San Marco in Florence, Ghirlandaio painted an almost identical version at the church of Ognissanti (All Saints) in Florence a few years prior.  This is a beautiful fresco and a good example of a standard type for this painting in quattrocento (15th century) Italian Renaissance painting.

The Last Supper was also the event where Christ announced that one of his twelve apostles would betray him, he didn't say who but any contemporary viewer would have known that was Judas.  Judas is always shown in these early Last Supper paintings as set apart from the rest of the group, here he is the only one present without a holy halo, sometimes his halo is shown as black.

This depiction was used so that the group of apostles would all be visible to the viewers and  that worshippers would easily be able to recognize the scene.  Symbols were commonly used in art and just as saints all had attributes in art, so did Judas.  His attribute early on was to be shown in a disgraced way.

Ghirlandaio (pronounced gear-land-eye-oh) has painted this scene using perspective and created depth in the painting with the tiles on the floor, incorporating painted architectural elements such as windows and arches, and by including a background of landscape with sky, clouds and birds.

He paints with his signature delicate and decorative style using bright light, soft colors, realistic faces and convincing figures.  At the time this and the other at Ognissanti were painted, they were considered some of the most beautiful Last Supper frescoes that had been painted.

The Last Supper, Leonardo da Vinci, Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan, 1495-98 

However within ten to fifteen years later Leonardo da Vinci painted his fresco in the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie and this Last Supper was to become the definitive representation of this story.  This was also a fresco, but Leonardo used a new technique that didn't work well and began to disintegrate within his own lifetime.  As this wasn't done with standard fresco technique his colors are different and he was able to paint with more detail, however much of the original detail has worn away.

Leonardo used a startling and bold new type of composition, done in a much more realistic style than that of his predecessors.  Here he doesn't just show the event of the Last Supper but a specific moment, that in which Christ has just announced that one of his apostles will betray him.  All at once they begin to ask "Is it I my Lord?  Will it be I?" 

Jesus is the central point of perspective in this rendition, all the lines used in the architecture to create depth can be traced back to him.  Jesus is completely still and calm and all movement and shapes radiate outward from him.  In this painting Judas sits with everyone and has just knocked over the salt.  Leonardo also uses symbolic representation in this painting, I have mentioned in previous posts that three was a divine number and four was the number of man.  Here he separates the apostles into four groups of three, symbolically calling attention to the fact that Christ was the one who joined mankind with divinity through his Crucifixion.

I have always found this to be a powerful piece and have only seen representations of it.  When I have seen Leonardo's paintings in person I have felt like they eclipse everything else in the room and seem to glow with a heavenly light all their own.  The Last Supper in Milan is something that I very much look forward to seeing in person someday as I get the same sense of that from just seeing pictures in books or slides in lectures.

With Leonardo's new depiction the Last Supper was transformed in painting into a stronger and more realistic scene.

  

 The Last Supper, Tintoretto, San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice, 1592-94

For our last painting to compare and contrast let's jump ahead 100 years later to the Late Venetian Renaissance.  The damp, humid climate in Venice didn't work as well for fresco painting where pigments where mixed directly into wet plaster.  At this time artists used oil on canvas and due to this different medium were able to get different results from Florentine frescoes.

Tintoretto was known for his dynamic style, broad and painterly brushwork and bold highlights painted on a dark ground.  Rather than using the early perfectly proportioned and symmetrical compositions of the High Renaissance, he used energetic and dramatic compositions.

We can see that here in this later Last Supper that uses a diagonal dinner table to create depth and drama in the painting.  Angels and servants join the others in this painting, however Tintoretto does go back to the earlier depiction of having Judas sit on the opposite side of the table and the only apostle without a halo.  His Christ is shown breaking the bread, and as in Leonardo's work Christ seems to be a calm center from which all action emanates.

The Last Supper was painted literally hundreds of times throughout art history, these three artists and styles were important and had a large influence on many of the depictions that followed. 

Titian's Entombment of Christ

Titian (Tiziano Vecellio) was undisputedly one of the great masters of the Venetian Italian Renaissance in the 16th century.  He studied under two other great masters: Bellini and Giorgione, and built on the skills he learned to become the most influential painter to come out of the Venetian school.  Titian became the official painter of the Venetian Republic in 1516.

 The Entombment of Christ, Titian, The Louvre, 1523-26

One of Titian's most significant contributions to painting was his style of brushwork.  Titian broke from the tradition of meticulously painting every minute detail from life, instead using expressive bold strokes and dots of color to create illusions, which captured reality.  His technique revolutionized painting in the 16th century.  Another thing he was known for were his sophisticated mathematical compositions within his works, breaking from earlier more symmetrical paintings.

The Entombment of Christ was a work which embodied the new harmony of the Renaissance.  In this composition the figures are placed with a mathematical precision forming two isosceles triangles within the painting.  The curving shapes of several others then enhance these triangular shapes. This emphasizes the harmonious proportions that were used in ancient Greek art and revived in the Renaissance.  His use of mathematics within the work draws the eye of the viewer into the action taking place. 

 Death of Meleager, Roman sarcophagus lid, marble, The Louvre, c-180 AD

photo- © user Mbzt / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The Entombment of Christ is a relatively early work in Titian's sixty-eight year career as an artist.  Frederick Hartt in his History of Italian Renaissance Art wrote of this work:

            "The pose of Christ is borrowed from that of the dead Meleager carried from

            the boar hunt in a well-known group of Roman sarcophagus reliefs."*

I am not certain if the example of the Roman sarcophagus from the Louvre (shown above) is the specific work that influenced Titian.  Even if it was not, it does help illustrate the idea of placing figures within a composition using mathematical arrangement which was common in antiquity.

Pesaro Madonna, Titian, Sta. Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, 1519-26

Another early example of this type of composition can be seen in the Pesaro Madonna, shown above.  This work also breaks from the perfect symmetry of the High Renaissance to give us a new type of interesting arrangement of form.  Again the various sets of figures are arranged in a triangular form.


As I stated in my blog post on Chartres Cathedral, the triangle was the number of divinity.  This can be seen in the Trinity and in Christian art and architecture is repeated many times over: the trefoil in Gothic architecture, tripartite naves, figures grouped into three, etc.


The Pesaro Madonna (so named as it was commissioned for the Pesaro family) rearragnes the standard frontal Madonna and Child portrait so as better to create depth, move the viewers eye through the painting and pull the viewer into this divine space.  In this Titian uses his trademark brushwork and coloring.

These are just two examples of painting from Titian who created hundreds throughout his long painting career.  He was nearly 90 when he died and continued to use the triangle in his compositions up until his final painting of the Pieta which he began for his own tomb.




*Hartt, Frederick. History of Italian Renaissance Art. 4th edition, New York: Harry N. Abrams Inc. Publishers, 1994. p. 591.

Poverty and politics

Poverty is a universal term and poverty elimination is a universal motto. Poverty destroys individuals, societies and nations. Poverty is hunger. Poverty is lack of shelter. It is the state of being sick but unable to see a doctor (Gordon et al., 2003). It is the condition which doesn’t allow one to have basic necessities in life. Poverty is the condition of not having a job and no resources to live with. It brings fear of future. It is the synonym of powerlessness, lack of representation and freedom (Gordon et al., 2000). Poverty can retard the overall growth of a society. It can negatively affect the progress of the nation itself. “Poverty is produced by circumstances, not individuals,” (Fincher & Wulff, 1998). Economic crisis increases the so-called ‘poverty sector’, leading to joblessness and social unrest. A proper planning and a better utilization of the available resources of the nation will lessen the poverty level to a great extent (Narayan & Parker, 2000). Diverting the existing resource to the disadvantaged people is the need of the hour. Every nation needs a proper governing authority to plan, accomplish and accelerate its growth. In developing countries especially, governments and political parties lead the show and try to bring progress to the society and stability to the economy by eliminating the curses like poverty. The ruling party and other political parties try to uplift the general status of the society and go deep into the problems and grievances of the people to a certain extent. Even though they do have opinion disputes and conflicts among them, they contribute a lot for the progress of the society and nation (especially rural areas where poverty is still a problem) (Pantazis, Gordon & Levitas, 2006).


Political interests and competitions play a major role in eliminating poverty from the nations. In the third world countries especially, political parties contribute a lot for the development works. Political parties try to perform well during their ruling tenure and take various actions for the negatively privileged sections of the society. They try to look into the agonies of the people of ill developed areas since such areas have the majority of the population in it. These less developed areas would be eagerly looking forward for a government which can help them to improve their total grade. No political party can ever think of getting rule in their hand without the votes of these majority weaker sections. So these thickly populated less developed areas are very important as far as political parties are concerned. They try to give alluring promises in their election campaign so that they can drain the votes of these areas. Filling the manifesto with various poverty reduction policies will definitely help the political parties to get the ballot in their favour. Poverty reduction will be the proclaimed motto of political parties of less developed countries. When they come into rule, these parties try to implement their poverty reduction policies to a certain extent at least. Political parties are very well aware of the fact that unless they bother about the poverty-stricken areas, nation will not see any progress in general and also they will not get the following election in their favour. Increasing number of political parties has thus favoured the development of nations in many ways. Progress of the nation is the declared motto of politics though we should doubt how far it is true in the cases of certain countries that have a corrupted political atmosphere.


Interest groups play a major role in the flow of democracy, especially in developing countries. Numerous interest groups exist in countries where there are more issues and problems. A political interest group can be a group, who tries to influence the government in order to get their interest about the society done. These political parties, especially the main opposition parties can fight to get their demands met by the government. In certain cases opposition parties perform extremely well and they do represent the weaker sections. They can point out the flaws and weaknesses of the ruling party and can help them improve their rule. These competing political forces are of different nature. They vary in their size, ideology, policy focus, influential capability, and mode of representation. For example, some groups may focus on certain issues or geographical areas and some may be interested in certain special topics. Also there are certain political groups who work on broader areas of public policy. Certain interest groups focus on government alone to get their demands done whereas some groups try to influence non-governmental and other private organizations and associations to uphold their objectives. The political party which is in power (the representative government) is supposed to encourage the interests of other competing groups also. They will consider the opposition’s opinion regarding major issues and will take decisions accordingly. The competing groups help to establish a balance by introducing arguments and resources to bear on various aspects of public policy decisions. They will equip themselves with power and influence and have a support from the public such that they can suppress any majority or minority group of vested interest who become strong enough to weaken the rights of others. Political groups compete on the playing field created by the constitutions (national as well as state) and laws. They develop their own policies and rules based on the constitution and will represent people for the progress of the nation. In short, these multiple competing groups try to create a stable political environment that allows the interests of the common people to be presented before the government.


In Calhoun and John McGowan (1997), the author asks, “Is politics really nothing more than power relations, competing interests and claims for recognition, conflicting assertions of ‘simple’ truths?.” But the political groups of certain countries have proved that they do offer their best for the development works of their nations. Political parties come out with various policies and plans that would eradicate poverty, according to their claims. They try to convince people that they are able to meet their demands and would repair their impoverished civic and private life. Even though it is true that ideology has waned and identity and interest based politics have come to the scene, political parties still try to improve the poverty-stricken state of the disadvantaged strata of the society. New new political parties appear into the political scene daily and they also come up with new promises so that people make their choice on their favour. These political parties are very well aware about the fact that unless they implement their poverty reduction policies, they will no longer get favour in the following election. In less developed countries especially, political parties have started attending the worries of poverty-stricken areas. In another words, in certain poor nations, political groups compete among themselves in providing best policies for people so that they gain the favour of the poor majority who look forward for a better government that can eradicate poverty from the society (Lustig, 2000). In other words, the competition between the political parties have become a boon for people who expect nothing but a better government that can implement developmental policies for the improvement of the unprivileged people.

Jean François Millet's The Gleaners

 Jean François Millet grew up in a poor farming family on the coast of Normandy.  Despite his humble upbringing, Millet was very well educated in both art and literature and decided to move to Paris in 1837 to further his studies in art.  Due to his social standing he was not well received at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, instead he joined the studio of a minor master painter, Paul Delaroche.  Millet's personal experience contributed to his painting style and he never forgot his background.   

Millet's talent as a painter was evident and he started receiving critical acclaim in the early 1840's. However, Millet spent much of his life in poverty and continued to struggle despite his successes.  

The Gleaners, Jean François Millet, the Louvre, 1857

He preferred to live in the countryside rather than Paris, he moved to Barbizon in 1849 and remained there for the rest of his life.  Millet's style is considered that of the Barbizon School of painters who painted from life and from nature and embraced a new type of realism.  Millet was not interested in either the popular Neoclassical or Romantic styles of painting; instead he painted what he knew: farmers and peasants performing their daily tasks of work.  

That style is evident in works such as The Gleaners, which was exhibited in the annual Salon of 1857.  What we are seeing is a depiction of the lowest type of peasants, those who gather the scraps of hay after the harvest has taken place.  The woman are hunched over, their lives are so connected with the earth that none of their heads are placed above the horizon line.  However they are shown in a warm glowing light, set apart from the neutral background by wearing muted primary colors.  Their proportions and placement in this painting add to the feeling that these women, who were on the bottom of the socioeconomic scale work hard enough to be considered the equivalents of any figure to be featured in painting.  

 

Peasant life had been depicted since the Baroque but not in the same manner as Millet.  Earlier paintings of peasants showed a rowdy bunch of characters, peasants as an allegory or an overly romanticized view of life.  Millet broke new ground by portraying his realistic figures with a quiet grace and dignity that had only been shown before in subject matter such as mythic heroes and royalty. 

Doric, Ionic and Corinthian

When the Ancient Greeks constructed temples thousands of years ago, they were very precise in their layouts and measurements for every aspect of these buildings.  There were three main architectural "orders" known as: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.  The differences in the styles are most easily recognized in the column capitals (the decoration on top of the columns) and have been used in architecture ever since.  

Which style is which and what are the differences between them?

The Doric Order
Our first example, Doric can be seen by looking at the two examples below: to the left the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens and to the right a diagram of the Doric Order.  The Doric Order was the first to be introduced, the column capital is plain and undecorated and the column itself is fluted and there is no base to the columns which grew slightly larger in circumference as they neared the base.  The Doric order also included a specific "entablature" or decoration above the columns.  Alternating "triglyphs" and "metopes" around the frieze at the top and sat on top of a plain band known as the "architrave" where the column would meet the frieze.

Triglyphs had three raised bars (tri=three) which separated each sculptural scene, those were known as metopes (met-oh-pee).  The simplicity of this style was very popular in the Archaic Period in Greece (750-480 BC) and seemed to be more popular on the mainland than on the Greek islands.  The Doric Order was imposing and massive in their appearance and elements of this continued to influence through the ages.

                                                           

 

Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, Greece, 449-415 BC

photo- © Sharon Mollerus / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons


Here is a more recent example of an adaption of the Doric Order, the Tempietto designed by Bramante in Rome at the start of the 16th century during the High Renaissance.  Bramante was also responsible for being one of the principle architects of St. Peter's in Rome.


Note that while Bramante used the classic Doric column capital, he broke from the Ancient Greek tradition by using smooth columns instead of fluted columns and he added bases to the columns which the traditional Doric did not use.  Another Renaissance invention was using a different color of marble for the column and capitals.  However Bramante did include the full entablature of the Classical Doric Order: an architrave (plain band above the columns) and triglyphs (three raised bars) alternating with metopes (sculptural decoration).

Tempietto, Donato Bramante, San Pietro in Montorio, Rome, c-1502

The Ionic Order
The second style that was invented was known as Ionic and can be most easily recognized by the scrolled capital on top of the columns.  This style was also created in the Archaic period and was used more frequently on the Aegean Islands than on the Greek mainland.


Besides the scrolled capital which is its most recognizable feature, the fluted columns are thinner and sit on a base.  The triglyphs and metopes are replaced by a plain, undecorated frieze.

Column of the Erechtheion, Acropolis of Athens, 421-406 BC

photo- © Guillaume Piolle / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons





A beautiful Renaissance example can be seen in La Rotunda (Villa Capra) which was designed by Palladio in Vicenza in the middle of the 16th century.  Palladian architecture had an enormous influence on both Renaissance and later architecture.  Palladio was very aware the the proportions and harmony that were used to create the original Greek temples.


Here is a detail of one of four symmetrical porches, again the one change that Palladio made was to use smooth columns instead of fluted columns.  La Rotunda the influence behind the American president Thomas Jefferson's home of Monticello in Virginia.  However Monticello used the Doric Order on its porches.

Porch of the Villa Capra (La Rotunda), Andrea Palladio, Vicenza, began 1567

The Corinthian Order
The Corinthian Order was the latest order to be introduced, the earliest example was found during the Late Classical Period (430-323 BC) but it was the style favored by the Romans in their architecture.  The Corinthian order used a column topped with an ornate capital with acanthus leaves and small scrolls.  The rest of the Corinthian order was the same as the Ionic order: the column sat on a base and there was a plain frieze instead of the trygliph and metope pattern used in Doric.

From A. Rosengarten, A Handbook of Architectural Styles,1898

    The Pantheon in Rome, 126 AD

A very good example of this can be seen in the Roman Pantheon designed in 126 AD.  While earlier Greek Corinthian columns were fluted, some later buildings such as the Pantheon were not.  There are more examples of the Corinthian Order in architecture because the Romans preferred this style and used it frequently throughout the Roman empire.

Another Palladian example can be seen below in the beautiful gleaming white marble facade of San Giorgio Maggiore in Venice.  We can instantly see the ornate column capital consisting of small scrolls and curling acanthus leaves.

San Giorgio Maggiore, Andrea Palladio, Venice, 1566-1610

While there have been variations from the original Greek orders throughout the ages, even the Romans created variations.  Greek columns were freestanding and used for structural support but the Romans often used columns for decorative purposes.  

Look at the Colosseum, below.  Greek temples were built using only one order but the three bands of decorative columns are each topped with a different column capital.  Without looking can you identify each of the three?

Exterior of the Colosseum, Rome, 72-80 AD

photo- © Paul Zangaro / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Remember that Doric has a plain capital, Ionic a scroll and Corinthian an elaborate one topped with leaves and small scrolls.  Therefore from the bottom up are Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.

 Variation on the three Greek orders: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian can be found everywhere.  They were used in the Renaissance, the Baroque and the Neoclassical styles of the 18th century as well as various revivals in the 19th and 20th century.  They are still in use today from public buildings to private homes and my blog readers are likely to spot them soon.  Next time you see a column that was created in the Greco-Roman style (or an original) you can ask yourself- Is it Doric, Ionic or Corinthian and I am sure you will know.  

Women In Politics

Despite widespread promotional campaigns to encourage more women to get involved in the democratic process, there are still relatively few who have made it to the top of the game. On an international level, women are highly underrepresented across the board, and this occurs for a number of reasons. The great UK politician and Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher is recorded as saying that women in politics must work twice as hard as their male counterparts in order to achieve the same level of success. As one of the few female leaders the world has ever seen, she should know.

So why are women so marginalized when it comes to politics, particularly in the upper echelons? Some accredit it to widespread and deep-rooted prejudices, which hold women as near second-class citizens in a man's world. Others feel it is to do with women lacking the drive and determination to make it to the top over the majority male dominance.

Or maybe its because they find it hard to control the support of a party in the party political system? Whichever way, women are certainly in the minority, and this is something which is surprising, given the widespread change in attitude towards women's rights over the last few decades.

At the time of writing this article, there are very few women at the top of their game in politics, including most notably leaders in Germany and Ukraine, as well as a handful of high ranking officials across the world. In the UK, Margaret Thatcher is held to be one of the best whilst also one of the worst Prime Ministers of all time, boasting significantly more controversial policies over her terms in office than anyone else to date. Whilst it is clear there is a deficit at the highest level in politics, it seems they are beginning in recent times to really make their mark.

Women find themselves second placed to men in all walks of life.

Regardless of individual points of view, or the feminist movement, it is cold hard fact that women are paid generally less than men for the same work, and face other forms of discrimination in and out of the workplace. By setting the example in politics, t is clear that attitudes to them the world over could be set to change, and the gender political power shift could be more than well under way.

Chartres Cathedral's North Rose window

To a modern viewer Medieval stained glass windows are a beautiful aspect of churches but to the Medieval viewer, stained glass windows were like books in Gothic Cathedrals, each pane told a story and each window was like a book of stories, usually pertaining to the bible.  Though there were also often references to history, past and current rulers, saints, the seasons or local stories as well.

Rose windows in cathedrals were beautiful examples of this.  These were called rose windows as the panes of glass radiated outwards in a circular pattern like a rose, rose windows are found in most Gothic Cathedrals.  Several years ago I was fortunate enough to visit the beautiful Notre Dame Cathedral in Chartres, which is in central France and had a tour by renowned Gothic scholar Malcolm Miller.  Each tour he gives focuses on a different part of the cathedral and tour I went on focused on both the Northern Rose Window and the North Porch which is on the exterior side of the cathedral.  Both had a very similar iconography; that of the prophets telling of the birth of Christ, and of Mary.

North Rose Window at Notre Dame Cathedral, Chartres, France, c-1235

photo- © Guillaume Piolle / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

 
In the very center of the window the Virgin Mary holds the baby Jesus  She is surrounded immediately by doves and angels.  The 12 major prophets encircle them in diamond shaped windows.  Then there are 12 quatrefoil (4 1/2 circles) windows with the symbol of France the fleur-de-lis.  The fleur-de-lis is literally "the lily flower" the flower that the Virgin Mary is always seen holding in an Annunciation scene.  The lily was for centuries a symbol used to indicate purity and the deep color blue is the color of the Mary and also a symbol for purity.

The exterior half lunette shapes each contain one of the minor prophets.  The small lancet (long, thin windows) windows at either side of the main rose window would indicate who the patron was, in this case Queen Blanche of Castille who was originally from the Castillian region of Spain before marrying into the French royal family and becoming the mother of St. Louis.  She ruled at the regent of France from 1226-1236.  The fleur-de-lis being the symbol of France and the gold castle on a red background being the symbol of Castille.  Anyone seeing this would have recognized right away that these were the joint symbols of Blanche of Castille.

North Rose Window, detail of center, Chartres, France, c-1235

photo- ©  Mossot / public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

It is important to keep in mind when viewing medieval art that as much of the population was illiterate, there was a greater significance placed on symbols.  Specific numbers, colors and objects all told stories to the viewer.  When we look at this Rose window we notice that we have five concentric circles which all contain 12 small windows: the center has 12 small circles, then 12 windows radiate out from that, there are 12 diamond shapes, 12 quatrefoil shapes and finally 12 half lunettes.

Everything is planned in medieval art, the number 12 was important for several reasons.  Three was of course the number of the trinity and four was the number of man.  Man had four limbs, life cycles and seasons. The Cross on which Christ was crucified also had four arms.  Therefore 12 (3 x 4) was a joining of the divine with mankind, which is also why the number 7 (3 + 4) was important symbolically.  Each color was significant as well, as mentioned earlier blue was a symbol of the Virgin, also red was a symbol for the Blood and Passion of Christ.

King David, St. Anne with the young Virgin and King Solomon
North Rose Window, detail of lower lancets, Chartres, France, c-1235

photo- © Amanda Harmonia/ public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Below the rose there are five larger lancet windows showing from left to right: King Melchizedek, King David, St. Anne with the young Virgin, King Solomon and Aaron.  Each of the four Old Testament figures is on top of a heretical figure such as King Saul committing suicide or Jeoboam praying to golden idols of calves.

The cathedral has three rose windows and nearly two hundred other stained glass windows, most made in the early 13th century by artists whose names are lost to us.   However the beauty and messages of these windows live on.

North Rose Window, detail, Chartres, France, c-1235

photo- © Amanda Harmonia/ public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

 Note: Malcolm Miller has also written several books on Chartres Cathedral.  I bought one while I was there but you can also find them online, they are published by Pitkin Guides

If you visit make sure to go on one of the twice daily tours he offers.

Purchasing Political Media With A Limited Campaign Budget

This year the political fundraising challenge is more difficult than ever. A Texas candidate who in the last election cycle was able to raise nearly two million dollars for a statewide race has found that fundraising, even in Texas, a State that has escaped the brunt of economic hardship, is very difficult. Even with major endorsements and strong name recognition, the weakness of our economy has become reality for political candidates. The effect of this shortfall impacts the campaign forty-five days before Election Day when political media rates become available and campaigns consume the lower cost air time quickly to lock in the best dates and times. Without the funds on hand at that the beginning of the political media window, candidates will find themselves with less desirable times available to purchase, if any availabilities remain.How political media is purchased continues to evolve. When media outlets were first mandated to sell commercials at the lowest rate (this is the lowest rate paid for a commercial by a non-political advertiser during the past year), the "political rate" was born. The media outlet had one rate card for political candidates. One rate purchased a commercial that aired anytime during the day. If the candidate purchased enough of these low rates, they were certain to have their commercial air during all "Day Parts" (6AM-10AM, 10AM-3PM, etc). In radio, morning drive time is the coveted "Day Part" charging the highest fee per commercial. In television the evening prime time is the most expensive "Day Part" to purchase. With the advent of "Day Parts" the political rate card now had different prices depending on the time of day. In both the original form and the "Day Parts" form the common element was the same. If stations accepted the political money for specific day parts, they had to air the commercials, often at the expense of local businesses willing to pay the larger, non-political rate. A solution was needed. Innovation and profit motives combined to create the current method of purchasing political media. Today's political rate card still has the lowest rates offered to any non-political advertiser, but the rate card for the non-political advertiser has changed, thus changing the political rate card. The rate card continues to be divided by "Day Parts", but Candidates are now offered two rates for each day part. "non-preemptible" and "preemptible". "Non-preemptible" are the most expensive. This means the station guarantees to air the spot at the requested date and time. You pay (always cash in advance with political media buys) and the commercial will air. With "preemptible, the rates are usually at least 20-30% lower, but you have no guarantee that your commercial will air. You pay and submit a schedule, but if another candidate or non-political advertiser pays the "non-preemptible" rate, your commercial gets "bumped". If they have time before the election, the station will try to "make good" and place your commercial on another day. If you need your message out the days before Election Day, this is not a viable alternative. In most cases, six weeks after Election Day the campaign receives a refund check from the media outlet for commercials that did not air because they were "bumped." If you won, no problem, if not...you will always wonder what might have been. One solution to budget shortfalls and escalating political advertising costs is found at ScottPolitical.com. Low cost, high quality commercial production and micro targeted media placement on local cable and/or radio. The success stories keep growing. Budgets of any size are finding success. There is very little guesswork in media placement with the information available today. Voters are reached, persuaded and most of all motivated to vote for our clients.

The Colour of My Dreams: The Surrealist Revolution in Art

I recently visited Vancouver, B.C. where I saw the exhibit The Colour of My Dreams: The Surrealist Revolution in Art at the Vancouver Art Gallery.  It is a huge show and if you haven't seen it yet you have until the end of the month, it ends on Sunday, October 2.  There are hundreds of artworks by 80 artists in a wide variety of media.  If you are interested in Modern Art I definitely recommend this exhibit.

I am interested in all of the meanings behind Surrealism and know I have a lot to learn.  The exhibit is huge and brings Surrealist work together and borrows from dozens of museums and private collections. 

René Magritte, The Six Elements, 1929, oil on canvas
Philadelphia Museum of Art: The Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection, 1950
© Estate of René Magritte / SODRAC (2010)

There are paintings, videos, drawings (including several "exquisite corpse drawings") and sculptures.  The sculpture also includes many works from Canada's First Nations (known in America as Native Americans) which had a strong influence on Surrealism.  I hadn't realized this earlier but seeing the side by side comparison gave me a new appreciation for both types of art. 

Surrealism began in Europe in the 20's and the movement was influenced by a variety of things including-
-The studies of Freud and new ideas about psychoanalysis as well as dream analysis.
-The art of the Dada artists a decade earlier who used art to make sense or World War I (or use their "nonsense art" to show that the war didn't make sense).
-The Metaphysical art movement also about a decade earlier which was the first to explore the ideas of the unconscious.
-The idea that tapping into the unconscious and letting go of rational thought completely frees ones creativity.

        Joan Miró, Photo: This is the Colour of My Dreams, 1925, oil on canvas
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Pierre and Maria-Gaetana Matisse Collection, 2002
© Successió Miró/SODRAC (2011)
Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art/Art Resource, NY

I will fully admit that I am not expert on the period, I have mostly been researching pre-20th century art.  However I have always found it fascinating, ever since I saw the work of Rene Magritte as a child.  A year ago I saw an amazing exhibit of Metaphysical art in Florence and this past spring my interest was renewed when I visited the Magritte Museum in Brussels.

Surrealism didn't have one specific style but most artists were interested in either creating very realistic works that didn't make visual sense (such as Magritte) or in creating works that were done when they let go of a rational thought process (such as Miro).  One example of the latter is the painting above by Miro which gave the exhibit its name.

Max Ernst, The Forest, 1923, oil on canvas
Philadelphia Museum of Art: The Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection, 1950
© Estate of Max Ernst / SODRAC (2010)

Rather than being arranged chronologically, the curators divided the art work into several categories.  Some of those categories were "Spaces of the Unconsious", "Forests/Labyrinths", "Exquisite Corpse", "Myths, Maps, Magic" and "Anatomies of Desire" each highlighting a different aspect of Surrealism.

Both forests and labyrinths were aspects of the human psyche, forests were thought of as dark and foreboding and could be interpreted as the darker part of human nature.  Labyrinths were confusing places where people lost reason.  The Surrealists had a journal titled "Minotaur" after the Minotaur that was in the labyrinth of Greek Mythology.

Pietà or Revolution by Night, Max Ernst, 1923, oil on canvas
Tate Modern, Purchased 1981, © Estate of Max Ernst/SODRAC (2011)
Photo: Tate, London/Art Resource, NY

The "exquisite corpse" were group drawings where a folded piece of paper each had an artist add an element of a figure to it.  It is the visual equivalent of having everyone add a line to a story without seeing the line preceding it.  The results were interesting and usually pretty amusing in a creative way.

Myths, Maps, Magic highlighted the influence of the Canadian First Nations upon Surrealism.  There was a beautiful example from the Kwakwaka’wak tribe of a peace dance headdress made of maple, abalone, paint, cloth, ermine fur and sea lion whiskers which is part of the permanent collection of the Vancouver Art Gallery.

I came away with a better understanding and appreciation for Surrealism, as well as a sense that I want to learn morn about this art movement.  The Surrealists have provided inspiration for generations of Modern and Contemporary artists.

I think everyone will want to see this show, but if you do miss it there is a very good exhibit catalog which accompanies it: 

The Colour of My Dreams: The Surrealist Revolution in Art by Dawn Ades

Political Pontifications

As a student of history, I have always been fascinated by the sociopolitical events which led to the Fascist take over of Germany, and how they were so successful, as many people seemed to be caught so unaware of the impending doom that loomed upon the horizon; how could they have been so blind, as not to have seen what was coming towards them, and what was happening to their country? I would often wonder, how a people who professed a belief in God, could condone things like sterilization, and euthanasia of the elderly, puzzled me deeply: this could certainly never happen again, and could certainly...never happen here in the United States, or could it? Read the purposed health care bill; in the vicinity of page 425, it speaks to having...end of life counseling, and states that only [certain doctors] will be able to write (end of life orders), well that's comforting to know...that the decision whether or not your life is worth saving...will rest with only "Special Doctors," now doesn't it? Incidentally, this is very similar to the policies that the National Socialist Party had in effect (you know, the Nazi's) after they came into power in Germany during the 1930's.

Never happen again...right!

These political dictums seem to sneak-up on people, who are occupied with trying to make ends meet, as they were in the thirties; it, is after all...difficult to impose change upon a prosperous people, only when people lose their jobs, homes, and their stomachs start to growl, do the seek change, as anything they believe, will be an improvement over their current situation. World War II, and the economic boom that it created saved us from destruction then, and the unfortunate removal of many servicemen from the post-war work force was; although regretful to the powers to be, it did promote a rather healthy demand for workers, service men were met at the docks, and train stations, by factory recruiters who would need positions filled once occupied by women during the war.

Now that the war was over, and we had won it, it was time to start the recovery process, but the lessons learned from the destruction of the third Reich, were not completely one sided, many in America felt that the Socialist merely went about things in the wrong way. Some of their ideas, they felt...were not all bad, after all' shouldn't everyone have, an equal share [of] the collective wealth? And, as the poor had always outnumbered the rich, were not their votes needed, and...as such, could be easily bought?

The only real concern the liberal movement truly has for the poor, and the minorities, is their ability to stroll into the voting booth with zombie-like tenacity, to reelect those who have been so faithful to them over the years. After all, they were our friends, or were they? Are these the empty pontifications of someone who has no first-hand knowledge? No, as a teenager: I followed my uncle to the polls many times, as it was his job to hand-out the money for the party; the five dollar, or a cheap bottle of whiskey (your choice), thank you for showing up to the polls. If people only knew the contempt they were held in, they would never have been so faithful. Trouble is, at least back then the money was supplied by the rich party faithful; where now they just use diverted tax money! Look for a stimulus check in the mail just before the 2010 mid-term election, and again, just before the 2012 presidential election, as it would be bad timing to send them too soon, as there would be a chance that you might forget their generosity before the polls open. You know for many years this type of behavior went on, and although we were affected by it; we still had a strong enough economy to absorb the shock, and anyway, we had a political system that sort of passed the ball every few years to the other team, and thereby kept the country, and economy, somewhat stabilized.

You may have found diverse economic philosophies on opposite sides of the isle, but the democrats would have been politically crucified just a few years ago, if for example: they would have embraced several radical factions; which today represent major planks in their platforms. For a politician to state that, "The United States [is] not a Christian Nation," in 1970, would have been their political finish! Or, if they wanted to coddle, or grant large gifts, to individuals who were in the United States illegally, they would have been politically stoned! These people have now reached a political impasse: they can only make a political army, by using the soldiers (as it were) from many nations, ask the ancient Romans; this does not work for long. The vast majority of politicians in 1965, could have gone to church together on Sunday, and disagreed with each other on an issue on Monday; today, they are afraid to be caught in church. When the President of the United States can't pick a church in Washington D.C. to attend...we've have gone too far!